difference between pig and human digestive system difference between pig and human digestive system
In vitro ruminal fermentation of tanniniferous tropical plants: Plant-specific tannin effects and counteracting efficiency of PEG. Because birds typically achieve higher paracellular absorption with less intestinal length and surface area than do similar sized nonflying mammals, there apparently are differences in intestinal permeability per unit intestinal tissue. In analogous studies in rats (443), dogs (277), and humans (154) L-glucose, and hence passive absorption, is quantitatively much less important, confirming the likely phylogenetic difference between birds and mammals in the importance of paracellular transport. Global Ag Media provides a knowledge sharing platform offering premium news, analysis and information resources for the global agriculture industry. Dillon RJ, Dillon VM. The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder are the solid organs of the digestive system. There are practically no selection experiments (169) designed to test for adaptation of digestive enzymes. 13A), with the difference declining with increasing body size (278). Also, work with pigs (438) and humans (168) that do not reingest feces demonstrates that there is another unknown pathway for absorption of microbially produced essential nutrients. Yadgary L, Yair R, Uni Z. The alimentary canal forms one part of the digestive system, and it is the long tubular canal that runs from mouth to anus. Among herbivorous mammals, these two extremes are well exemplified by, respectively, Giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), which digest less than 10% of cellulose and hemicellulose in ingested bamboo (122) and gorillas, which can digest 45% to 70% of cell-wall material in their herbivorous diet (377). The expression of digestive enzymes and nutrient transporters approximately matches the dietary load of their respective substrates, with relatively modest excess capacity. Digestive responses during food restriction and realimentation in nestling house sparrows (. Yet this multi-faceted system involves many complex interactive functions.The goal of this paper is to describe the organs involved in digestive and biological functions (Figure 1). (A) Functional groups of bacteria (SRBs, sulfate-reducing bacteria). Diversity of beetle genes encoding novel plant cell wall degrading enzymes. Clark TM. The integrated processing response in herbivorous small mammals. In one detailed analysis of three temperate fish species feeding on seaweed, the rate of production of one SCFA, acetate, was similar to those in the guts of herbivorous reptiles and mammals, even though the fish lacked coherent fermentation chambers (333). (Early reports that peptide transport is Na+-linked are erroneous.) Competitive inhibition by flavonoid transport does not seem to be the mechanism. Reports of impacts of SMs on absorption of other substrates are scanty. Timofeeva NM, Egorova VV, Nikitina AA, Dmitrieva JV. Allardyce BJ, Linton SM, Saborowski R. The last piece in the cellulase puzzle: The characterisation of beta-glucosidase from the herbivorous gecarcinid land crab. The next system to go over is the integumentary system-the skin. Janis C. The evolutionary strategy of the Equidae and the origins of rumen and cecal digestion. Sauter SN, Roffler B, Philipona C, Morel C, Rome V, Guilloteau P, Blum JW, Hammon HM. Novakova R, Homerova D, Kinne RKH, Kinne-Saffran E, Lin JT. Diacylglycerol generated by PLC2, together with the high Ca2+, activates PKCII, permitting the insertion of GLUT2 into the apical membrane and the resultant high capacity uptake of glucose and fructose. Micelles are 4 to 8 nm diameter aggregations of the hydrophobic lipid products with bile acids, which act as amphipathic detergents and mediate the passage of the lipid products across the aqueous boundary layer to the apical membrane of intestinal enterocytes. Horn MH, Messer KS. Starck JM. But, excessive retention time would either limit food intake rate or impose costly increase in size of the GI tract, or both, and this would be selected against in animals maximizing their growth or reproductive rate. Ohkuma M, Noda S, Hongoh Y, Nalepa CA, Inoue T. Inheritance and diversification of symbiotic trichonymphid flagellates from a common ancestor of termites and the cockroach Cryptocercus. The Logic of Life: The Challenge of Integrative Physiology. Intestinal disaccharidases of young turkeys: Temporal development and influence of diet composition. They also synthesize nutrients, including essential amino acids, that may be released from living cells or when microbial cells are digested by the host. The first evidence for SNPs as causative factors in lactose intolerance came from a study of Finnish families where a DNA variant (C/T-13910) located in the enhancer element upstream of LCT associated with lactose intolerance (140). Changes in digestive rate of a predatory beetle over its larval stage: Implications for dietary breadth. Lecona E, Olmo N, Turnay J, Santiago-Gomez A, Lopez de Silanes I, Gorospe M, Lizarbe MA. The genome of one common human gut symbiont Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron contains a total of 261 glycoside hydrolases and polysaccharide lyases (479). Diet drives convergence in gut microbiome functions across mammalian phylogeny and within humans. As a general rule, digestive efficiency on a food type declines with increasing amount of refractory material in food. Studies with colonic epithelial tissue and luminal perfusion experiments point to SCFA/HCO3 exchangers, with evidence for saturation kinetics and competitive inhibition by acetate, butyrate, and propionate, but not lactate (203, 204, 312, 378). Evidence from digestive enzyme activities, gastrointestinal fermentation, and luminal nutrient concentrations. Nakayama T, Hashimoto T, Kajiya K, Kumazawa S. Affinity of polyphenols for lipid bilayers. The phenolic, tannic acid, nonspecifically inhibited D-glucose and L-proline uptake by isolated mouse intestine, possibly by reduction in the Na+ gradient for Na+-coupled nutrient uptake across the apical membrane (251). It is to be expected that water-soluble toxins that are not too large in molecular size will also have access to the paracellular pathway (238b). In the wood eating termite Reticulitermes speratus, for example, intrinsic cellulase gene expression is much reduced in reproductives compared with workers (399), and protease levels are much reduced in colony members of ants, wasps, and honeybees that are fed amino-acid-rich excretions of other colony members (159, 218). Ontogenetic expression and regulation of Na-D-glucose cotransporter in jejunum of domestic chicken. What is the difference between a pig and human digestive system? Vasconcelos IM, Oliveira JTA. Until weaning, the stomach of the neonate is not acidic and substantial amounts of gastric and pancreatic proteases are not expressed. Ranges are given for the following food types: ne, nectar; vf, vertebrate flesh; wv, whole vertebrates; in, whole invertebrates; se, seeds; fr, fruit; ve, vegetation (grass, dicot leaves, and twigs); de, detritus. Geddes K, Philpott DJ. Suzuki T, Douard V, Mochizuki K, Goda T, Ferraris RP. Integrated analysis of digestive strategy using reactor models has been usefully applied in studies with fish as well (175, 216) but other kinds of models, for example, compartment models, are also useful (90). Learning Objectives. Diet-related determinants of absorption in individual animals are addressed in Section Matches of GI system biochemistry (enzymes, transporters) to changes in diet composition.. Juan ME, Turmo MC, Planas JM. Chemicals from many of the major groupings of SMs (e.g., alkaloids, phenolics, and terpenoids) inhibit animals intrinsic mechanisms of breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins (Table 4). With shorter retention time in conjunction with the same or lower enzymatic capacity, one would predict from Eq. These esterified products are incorporated into apolipoprotein (apo)B48-containing chylomicrons in a microsomal triglyceride transport protein-dependent manner. Fish amylases and glucose transporters appear to be molecularly closely related to those in mammals and to have comparable characteristics (165, 269). 18B). Decreased polyphenol transport across cultured intestinal cells by a salivary proline-rich protein. Chan AS, Horn MH, Dickson KA, Gawlicka A. Digestive enzyme activity in carnivores and herbivores: Comparisons among four closely related prickleback fishes (Teleostei: Stichaeidae) from a California rocky intertidal habitat. Barfull A, Garriga C, Montserrat M, Planas JM. The most important similarities between the pig and human digestive tracts are: the structure of the villi and the types of cells that constitute the intestinal epithelium, the ratio of. For many years its natural substrate(s) were not known, but its presence was widely used in intestinal studies as a marker of the apical brush border and as a marker for crypt-villus differentiation (276). But, microbes potentially provide their hosts more than those energy-rich fermentation products. There is some digestive plasticity evident during frog development, because the glucose/proline ratio was nearly doubled in bullfrog tadpoles raised on lettuce compared with those raised on beef (437). (B) Amino-peptidase N activity [Data from Fig. Capacity for absorption of watear-soluble secondary metabolites greater in birds than in rodents. Guinea pigs also have elevated numbers of eosinophils prior to sensitization and challenge (Zosky and Sly . Buddington RK, Malo C, Sangild PT, Elnif J. Intestinal transport of monosaccharides and amino acids during postnatal development of mink. Struempf HM, Schondube JE, Martinez del Rio C. The cyanogenic glycoside amygdalin does not deter consumption of ripe fruit by cedar waxwings. This overview also introduces the economy of nature as an evolutionary organizing principle that can be used to predict and explain many patterns. The picture that emerges is one of correlated evolution of diet and amylase coincident with the dietary shift early in hominin evolutionary history toward starch-rich plant underground storage organs such as bulbs, corms and tubers and later to grains. Expression of Na+/glucose co-transporter 1 (SGLT1) in the intestine of piglets weaned to different concentrations of dietary carbohydrate. Baker JE, Lum PTM, Halliday WR. How this differential response to essential versus nonessential amino acids is achieved despite the overlapping substrate specificities of the various amino acid transporters (Table 3) is not fully understood. Frank DN, St Amand AL, Feldman RA, Boedeker EC, Harpaz N, Pace NR. Pregastric fermentation chambers have evolved rarely, and are apparently restricted principally to mammals, with five independent evolutionary origins [in the Artiodactyls (in the ruminants, camels, and hippos), in the colobine monkeys, and the Macropodidae (kangaroos)]; the remarkable S American bird, the hoatzin, also has a pregastric fermentation chamber (188, 476). Yang RB, Xie CX, Fan QX, Gao C, Fang LB. Sklan and colleagues (404406, 445, 446) and Planas and colleagues (16, 413) have studied the molecular basis for ontogenetic changes in carbohydrate digestion and absorption in chickens during the week before and after hatching. Diamond JM. The pinocytotic uptake capacity declines at weaning, although molecular details of this have not been elucidated. Surprisingly, the ratio of intestinal glucose uptake to proline uptake, which is an index for the relative capacity for glucose and proline absorption, did not change between bullfrog tadpoles and adults and was characteristic of vertebrate carnivores (436). (248). This flexibility is exhibited at two levels: anatomical, including the overall size and architecture of the GI tract (Section Models help in understanding the diversity of digestive systems and guide mechanistic, integrative research); and biochemical, especially the activity of digestive enzymes and transporters. Chen H, Pan YX, Wong EA, Webb KE. For example, in the human colon, Bacteroides species degrade complex polysaccharides to sugars; the sugars are respired by Bifidobacterium and other anaerobic bacteria to lactate; and the lactate is fermented by bacteria such as Eubacterium hallii and Roseburia hominis, producing butyrate (Fig. Usnic acid, a secondary metabolite of lichens and its effect on, Pankoke H, Bowers MD, Dobler S. Influence of iridoid glycoside containing host plants on midgut beta-glucosidase activity in a polyphagous caterpillar, Spilosoma virginica Fabricius (Arctiidae). Carmona A, Borgudd L, Borges G, LevyBenshimol A. Sklan D, Geyra A, Tako E, Gal-Gerber O, Uni Z. Ontogeny of brush border carbohydrate digestion and uptake in the chick. Prudence M, Moal J, Boudry P, Daniel JY, Qur C, Jeffroy F, Mingant C, Ropert M, Bdier E, Van Wormhoudt A, Samain JF, Huvet A. Effect of salivary proteins on the transport of tannin and quercetin across intestinal epithelial cells in culture. Variation in bacterial communities of mammals with diet, analyzed by principal components analysis. Kellett GL, Brot-Laroche E, Mace OJ, Leturque A. Wickramasinghe DD, Oseen KL, Wassersug RJ. Patra AK. Digesting microbes requires first breaking the bacterial cell walls and then hydrolyzing and absorbing the contents of the bacterial cell. Another general pattern interpretable in terms of Eqs. Resident bacteria in the GI tract of humans also have considerable capacity to utilize carbohydrates, including complex plant polysaccharides. Erickson RH, Gum JR, Jr, Lindstrom MM, McKean D, Kim YS. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract of animals can serve multiple functions including digestion, osmoregulation, and protection (e.g., by detoxification or immune function). 6). Duan CJ, Feng JX. Structural flexibility of the digestive system of tetrapods - patterns and processes at the cellular and tissue level. This reduced pH kills bacteria ingested with the feed. Furthermore, this effect was correlated with changes in transcript abundance of the maltase gene, indicating the central role of gene expression in regulating digestive function (242, 243). Hoehne-Reitan K, Kjorsvik E, Reitan KI. These transporters are expressed predominantly in the small intestine. Discrimination between cholesterol and sitosterol for absorption in rats. Phenotypic plasticity of gut structure and function during periods of inactivity in. There is also persuasive molecular and physiological evidence for the involvement of SGLT and GLUT transporters in glucose absorption from the midgut of the pyrrochorid bug Dysdercus peruvianus, with K+, not Na+, as the likely counterion of SGLT (28). Ontogenetic development of monosaccharide and amino acid transporters in rabbit intestine. Lysozyme hydrolyzes the bacterial cell walls and the defensins insert into membranes where they interact with one another to form pores that disrupt membrane function and lead to the death of the bacterial cell (268). In rats, SGLT1 (primary D-glucose transporter) is expressed before birth whereas GLUT5 (fructose transporter) is first expressed only during or after weaning. Fischbarg J. Fluid transport across leaky epithelia: Central role of the tight junction and supporting role of aquaporins. Tobin V, Le Gall M, Fioramonti X, Stolarczyk E, Blazquez AG, Klein C, Prigent M, Serradas P, Cuif MH, Magnan C, Leturque A, Brot-Laroche E. Insulin internalizes GLUT2 in the enterocytes of healthy but not insulin-resistant mice. Abe and Higashi (1) called them cytoplasm consumers and contrasted them with other species called cell-wall consumers that extract a lot of energy from refractory materials. -glucosidases are an important group of glucohydrolases found in the small intestine tissue of mammals, with apical membrane-bound lactase phlorizin hydrolase and broad-specificity cytosolic -glucosidase being the most widely studied, including in humans, rats, and guinea pigs (95, 113, 342). How the house sparrow, Passer domesticus, absorbs glucose. Cattle and sheep have three additional chambers before the true stomach. Crava CM, Bel Y, Lee SF, Manachini B, Heckel DG, Escriche B. Fish guts as chemical reactors: A model of the alimentary canals of marine herbivorous fishes. Tannins are water-soluble polyphenolic compounds with a molecular weight between 300 and 3000 Da, and have the putative function as possible digestibility reducers (248). For example, after urea containing the nitrogen-15 isotope is administered orally to cows, lysine containing that same isotope is found in proteins within tissues of those animals (Fig. Modeling animal guts as chemical reactors. Comparison of gastrointestinal transit times between chickens from D+ and D- genetic lines selected for divergent digestion efficiency. The birds were hand-fed on either 0-starch diet (mimicking insect food), comprising 20% corn oil and 59.63% casein; or +starch containing 25.4% corn starch, 8% corn oil, and 46.23% casein designed to mimic a mixture of insects and plant (seed) material. Infante JLZ, Cahu CL. Animal foods tend to have the lowest amounts of refractory material (e.g., hair, feathers, bone, and cuticle), seeds and fruits have intermediate levels [measured here as neutral detergent fiber (248)], and herbage has the highest levels (especially mature leaves and structural parts). Initially, a functional gastric region may be absent [e.g., references (335)] and, as described for mammals, pinocytosis and intracellular digestion may function as a major mechanism of nutrient absorption (246, 352, 481) followed later by expression of gastric proton pump and pepsinogen for protein digestion (108). Digestive enzymes in larvae of the leaf cutting ant. In autocatalytic (e.g., microbial fermentation) reactions, reaction rate is a complex function of substrate concentration and the concentration of the microbes. Behar A, Yuval B, Jurkevitch E. Enterobacteria-mediated nitrogen fixation in natural populations of the fruit fly Ceratitis capitata. Martinez TF, McAllister TA, Wang YX, Reuter T. Effects of tannic acid and quebracho tannins on in vitro ruminal fermentation of wheat and corn grain. 5C). The second example of interspecies differences in nutritional flexibility concerns two passerine birds, the house sparrow P. domesticus, which can use a range of diets including protein-rich insects and starchy seeds, and the zebra finch, Teniopygia gutta, which has a relatively fixed diet dominated by seeds. Other secretions in this region are present in the form of digestive enzymes, specifically pepsinogen. Flavonoids have differential dffects on glucose absorption in rats (. (B) Induced expression of Slctlp2 mRNA by starvation and refeeding in sixth instar larvae. Circulatory system. Absorbed amino acids and simple sugars are taken directly to the liver via the portal vein. In: Mackie RI, White BA, editors. Daniel H. Molecular and integrative physiology of intestinal peptide transport. Developmental adjustments of house sparrow (. Artificial sweeteners, such as sucralose, dramatically increase GLUT2 insertion and the resultant uptake of glucose, such that the sugar is absorbed efficiently from lower concentrations in the presence of the artificial sweetener than in its absence (302). Developmental changes in digestive physiology of nestling house sparrows. Ontogenesis of intestine morphology and intestinal disaccharidases in chickens (. Digestive system with liver lifted to reveal gall bladder. The stomach secretes acid, result- ing in a low pH of 1.5 to 2.5. Learn more about Biochek's diagnostic offering, Tips for diagnosis, prevention and control. 10). The relationship between the degradative capabilities of the bacteria in the GI tract and diet is further vividly illustrated by the discovery of genes for porphyranases and agarases in the gut bacterium Bacteroides plebeius isolated from Japanese but not North American individuals (207). This allows . Figure 20. Some species (e.g., poultry and ducks) are precocial in development, possessing advanced locomotory, and thermoregulatory features at hatch compared with other species that are altricial (e.g., perching or passerine birds). Arjamaa O, Vuorisalo T. Gene-culture coevolution and human diet. Nevertheless, the global diversity of microorganisms associated with the GI tract of invertebrates is substantial with different dominant species, phyla or even kingdoms in different animal taxa. In this experimental model, rates can be decreased by the presence of salivary proteins that form complexes with polyphenols (60, 61). Second, they are waste products of fermentative respiration of resident bacteria in nongastric, anoxic regions of the alimentary tract (not products of animal digestion), with the implication that they are produced and absorbed across the hindgut (and pregastric fermentation chambers of some animals, see Section Basic designs of digestive tracts), not midgut, small intestine etc. A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins. Tannin-binding proteins in saliva of deer and their absence in saliva of sheep and cattle. Evolutionary structural and functional conservation of an ortholog of the GLUT2 glucose transporter gene (SLC2A2) in zebrafish. Insect fat body: Energy, metabolism, and regulation. This region is responsible for secreting mucus to line the digestive membranes to prevent damage from the low pH digesta as it passes to the small intestine. Rumination has evolved independently in the ruminants and camels; kangaroos display more irregular cycles of regurgitation/swallowing that is known as merycism. The production of intrinsic cellulases by arthropods (insects), crustaceans (crayfish), and nematodes has been firmly established (463), but this capability is apparently absent from all vertebrates. Within many taxonomic groups one can identify species that skim the cream and assimilate cell contents or other nonrefractory materials and mainly pass the refractory material undigested. Transcriptional and posttranscriptional adjustments mediate phenotypic changes in the expression of hydrolases and transporters in response to dietary signals. Comparisons of digestive tract anatomy. Soriano ME, Planas JM. Flashcards. Stein ED, Diamond JM. the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. The human digestive system and a pig's digestive system are very similar to each other. Ontogenetic diet shifts and digestive constraints in the omnivorous freshwater turtle. White and green tea polyphenols inhibit pancreatic lipase in vitro. Knott KK, Barboza PS, Bowyer RT. This pattern, first described in a survey of more than 40 species drawn from the major vertebrate classes (245), is apparent also in comparative studies within fish (51) and birds (247). The probability of such high concordance with predictions is so infinitesimally low that the authors concluded that evolutionary changes in diet in phyllostomid bats were indeed accompanied by adaptive shifts in digestive enzymes. Diamond JM, Karasov WH. The diet shifter C. violaceus increased mediated glucose transport activity even as it grew but without an accompanying shift to a higher carbohydrate diet (51), providing another example of an apparent genetically programmed developmental change. A number of reviews provide many details of the enzymes structure, pH dependence, function and distribution among vertebrate and invertebrate taxa (88, 246, 419, 428, 429, 457). Pancreatic and intestinal carbohydrases are matched to dietary starch level in wild Passerine birds. Zaneveld JR, Lozupone C, Gordon JI, Knight R. Ribosomal RNA diversity predicts genome diversity in gut bacteria and their relatives. The cotransport of the K+ ions and amino acid into enterocytes is coupled to the ATPase-dependent extrusion of K+ ions from adjacent goblet cells. For example, in altricial house sparrows digestive biochemistry was dynamic over their 2-week period from hatching to fledging from the nest. Mediation of host-plant use by a glucoside in Callosobruchus maculatus F (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing.